Does Fasted Cardio Burn More Fat? Yes — About 3 Grams

Somebody set an alarm for 5:40 a.m. to run before breakfast because they read that fasted cardio burns more fat.

They were told the truth. Fasted cardio does burn more fat during the session. A meta-analysis of 27 studies covering 273 participants found a significant increase in fat oxidation when aerobic exercise was performed fasted rather than fed — a weighted mean difference of about 3.08 grams across the bout.¹

Three grams. Roughly 28 calories. About a quarter tablespoon of olive oil.

That number is the entire prize, and understanding why it doesn’t translate into a smaller waistline is the most useful thing you can learn about pre-workout nutrition. The short version: fat oxidized during an hour of exercise and fat lost over a week are two different accounting problems, and your body reconciles the books while you sleep.

There is a real advantage hiding in the fasted-cardio literature. It just isn’t the one on the fitness forums, and it runs through your appetite rather than your mitochondria.

Question	Short answer
Does fasted cardio burn more fat?	Yes — about 3.08 g more per session across 27 studies1
Does that mean more fat loss?	No. With calories matched, 4-week fat loss showed no significant difference2
Why not?	Daily fat balance tracks energy balance, not which fuel you burned at 6 a.m.3
Is there any real benefit?	Possibly appetite: skipping breakfast before exercise left 24-h energy balance 400 kcal more negative4
Does that replicate?	Inconsistently. A 4-day trial found no difference in intake, expenditure, or appetite5
What matters more?	Time of day. Evening fasted exercise raised 24-h intake by 547 kcal vs morning6
What does it cost?	Prolonged aerobic performance. Pre-exercise feeding improves it significantly7
Best use case?	Easy-to-moderate sessions under ~60 min, in the morning, if it suits your schedule

Does Fasted Cardio Burn More Fat? Yes — Here’s Exactly How Much

The mechanism is real and it isn’t controversial.

After an overnight fast, insulin is low and your liver glycogen has been drawn down. Low insulin releases the brake on lipolysis, so fatty acids move out of adipose tissue and into circulation, and working muscle burns a higher proportion of fat.

Writing in the British Journal of Nutrition, Alexandra Ferreira Vieira and colleagues at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul screened 10,405 articles and pooled the 27 trials that directly compared fasted with fed aerobic exercise. Fat oxidation during exercise was significantly higher in the fasted state, with a weighted mean difference of −3.08 g (95% CI −5.38, −0.79) — the negative sign reflects the fed-minus-fasted contrast the authors modeled — and modest heterogeneity across studies.¹

The same analysis found glucose and insulin concentrations significantly higher during fed exercise, exactly as the physiology predicts.¹ Nothing here is in dispute.

So the premise checks out. Fasted cardio burns more fat during the workout. The problem is what happens in the twenty-three hours afterward.

Why Burning More Fat Doesn’t Mean Losing More Fat

Here is the part that almost every “burn more fat” article skips.

Fat loss is not determined by which fuel you burned between 6 and 7 a.m. It’s determined by your fat balance — fat in versus fat out — across the full day. And your body is very good at rebalancing.

Edward Melanson and colleagues at the University of Colorado tested this directly in a whole-room calorimeter. Lean sedentary, lean endurance-trained, and obese sedentary participants each spent 24 hours in the chamber under two conditions: sedentary control, and one hour of cycling at 55% of aerobic capacity — with energy replaced so that 24-hour energy balance was maintained.

Twenty-four-hour fat oxidation did not differ between the exercise and control days in any of the three groups. In fact, 24-hour fat balance was significantly more positive on the exercise day (P < 0.01).³

Read that again. When the calories burned were replaced, an hour of cycling did not increase daily fat oxidation at all — and the authors concluded that energy balance is “an underappreciated factor determining the impact of exercise on fat oxidation.”³

Think of substrate use like a household budget rather than a single purchase. Spending more on fat in the morning means you spend less on it later. What actually determines whether the account shrinks is total energy in versus total energy out — not which category you charged at 6 a.m.

This is why fasted cardio can be genuinely better at burning fat and completely irrelevant to losing it. If you want the underlying arithmetic, our guide to how many calories you should actually eat covers the energy-balance side properly.

What Happens Over Weeks: The Controlled Trials

Mechanism arguments are cheap. Randomized trials with body-composition endpoints are what settle this.

Four Weeks, Matched Calories, Zero Difference

Brad Schoenfeld, PhD, of the Department of Health Science at Lehman College, CUNY, ran the cleanest version of the test. Twenty healthy young women were randomized to fasted or fed steady-state aerobic exercise — one hour, three days a week, for four weeks — with volume equated and everyone on a customized hypocaloric diet. A meal-replacement shake was given immediately before exercise in the fed group and immediately after in the fasted group, so total intake matched and only timing differed.

Both groups lost significant weight (P = 0.0005) and fat mass (P = 0.02). No significant between-group differences were found in any outcome measure.²

The authors’ conclusion is unusually blunt: body composition changes are similar “regardless whether or not an individual is fasted prior to training.”²

Twelve Weeks of Lifting, Same Result

The Vieira group later ran the resistance-training version — a longer, better-powered trial. Twenty-eight young adults trained twice weekly for 12 weeks, either after an overnight fast or 1–2 hours after a carbohydrate-rich meal, with isocaloric nutritional guidance throughout. Outcomes were measured with DXA, ultrasound, 1RM testing, and power testing.

Both groups improved. Quadriceps muscle thickness rose 1.21 cm (fasted) and 1.18 cm (fed). Knee-extension 1RM rose 28.53 kg and 29.31 kg. No group effect reached significance on any measure — group P-values ranged from .251 to .919.⁸

So across both aerobic and resistance modalities, with calories controlled, training fasted neither helps nor hurts body composition. That’s a boring finding, and boring findings that replicate are the ones worth trusting. It’s the same lesson as body recomposition generally: adherence and total intake dominate timing — which is why SensAI programs around the sessions you’ll actually complete rather than the ones a protocol calls optimal.

Fasted vs Fed: Every Outcome the Trials Measured

Outcome	Fasted vs fed	Evidence
Fat oxidation during the session	Fasted higher by ~3.08 g	27-study meta-analysis, 273 participants1
Fat mass after 4 weeks	No significant difference	20 women, volume-equated, matched hypocaloric diet2
Fat-free mass after 4 weeks	No significant difference	Same trial, no between-group difference on any measure2
Muscle thickness after 12 weeks	No significant difference (1.21 vs 1.18 cm)	28 adults, DXA + ultrasound8
Strength after 12 weeks	No significant difference (28.53 vs 29.31 kg 1RM)	Same trial, group P = .251–.9198
Prolonged aerobic performance	Fed better (P = .012)	46-study review7
Short-duration performance	No significant difference (P = .687)	Same review7
20 km time-trial power	Fed better by 9.1 W (~3%)	11 trained cyclists, matched pre-exercise carbs9
24-hour energy balance	Fasted more negative by ~400 kcal	Randomized crossover, ad libitum feeding4
Energy intake across 4 days	No significant difference (15.0 vs 15.0 MJ/day)	4-day tracked trial5
Glucose tolerance on a hypercaloric high-fat diet	Fasted better	6-week trial, GLUT4 +28%10

Fasted Cardio Benefits: The One That Survives Scrutiny Is Appetite

Now the interesting part, because there is a signal in this literature and it isn’t metabolic.

If skipping breakfast before exercise reduces what you eat that day — and you don’t unconsciously make it back at lunch — then fasted training produces a genuine energy deficit. Not through fat oxidation. Through intake.

Javier Gonzalez and colleagues in the Department for Health at the University of Bath tested precisely this, in The Journal of Nutrition. Twelve healthy, physically active young men completed three randomized trials: breakfast then rest, breakfast then 60 minutes of cycling, and overnight fasting then the same cycling. Lunch, snacks, and dinner were all ad libitum, and 24-hour expenditure was measured by indirect calorimetry with heart-rate accelerometry.

The 24-hour energy balance results:

Condition	24-h energy balance
Breakfast + rest	+492 kcal (95% CI: 332, 652)
Breakfast + exercise	+7 kcal (95% CI: −153, 177)
Fasted + exercise	−400 kcal (95% CI: −230, −571)

Fasted exercise was significantly more negative than both other conditions (both P < 0.01).⁴

Crucially, the participants did not fully compensate. Neither the exercise energy expenditure nor the skipped breakfast calories were made back over the rest of the day.⁴ That is a real, measured, 400-calorie deficit — and it’s about 14 times larger than the 28 calories you gained from extra fat oxidation.

If fasted cardio works for you, this is almost certainly why. Not fat burning. Fewer calories.

But the Appetite Effect Doesn’t Always Replicate

Before you delete breakfast, the honest counterweight.

Gareth Wallis’s group at the University of Birmingham ran a longer version: twelve physically active adults did a 75-minute run either fasted or fed, then had every component of energy balance tracked across four days — food intake by weighed leftovers, expenditure by combined heart rate and accelerometry, appetite by visual analogue scales, plus continuous glucose monitoring.

Nothing differed. Energy intake was identical (15.0 vs 15.0 MJ/day, P = 0.865). Activity energy expenditure, total energy expenditure, appetite, and interstitial glucose all showed no condition effect. The authors concluded the two approaches “could be used interchangeably.”⁵

One tightly controlled 24-hour trial finds a 400-calorie advantage; one four-day trial finds nothing. That is the actual state of the evidence, and anyone telling you otherwise is selling something.

Timing Beats Fasting

The newest and largest entry reframes the question entirely.

A 2026 American Journal of Clinical Nutrition trial led by Christoph Höchsmann at the Technical University of Munich randomized 35 healthy young adults through fasted exercise in the morning after a 12-hour fast, fasted exercise in the evening after a 12-hour fast, and evening exercise after a 6-hour fast — each session 30 minutes of treadmill running at 65% of VO₂peak, with a subsample also completing fed morning and fed evening sessions.

Compared with morning fasted exercise, evening fasted exercise increased acute intake by 400 kcal (95% CI: 286, 515) and 24-hour intake by 547 kcal (95% CI: 335, 759), both P < 0.001. Hunger and desire to eat were higher and fullness lower after evening sessions.⁶

Fat oxidation behaved exactly as the textbook says — higher in fasted and evening conditions, with evening fasted exceeding morning fasted by 0.77 kcal/min. And yet pre-exercise feeding “suppressed fat oxidation but did not attenuate energy intake or appetite.”⁶

The authors’ framing is the sentence to remember: a dissociation between metabolic and behavioral regulation, with timing — not fasting — holding primacy in post-exercise appetite control.⁶

Translated: when you train changes how much you eat far more than whether you ate first. If fasted cardio helps you, it likely helps because it’s a morning habit, not because your glycogen was low.

What Fasted Cardio Costs You

The deficit side has a bill attached, and it lands on hard sessions.

T.P. Aird and colleagues at the University of Limerick reviewed 46 studies of fasted versus fed-state exercise. Pre-exercise feeding significantly enhanced prolonged aerobic performance (P = .012) but made no difference to shorter-duration efforts (P = .687).⁷

That split is the practical rule. Short and easy? Fasting costs you nothing measurable. Long or hard? You are leaving performance on the table. Tell the SensAI coach you train before breakfast and it holds that constraint against session intensity rather than against the clock.

Does Fasted Cardio Burn Muscle?

No — not on the evidence available. This is the most persistent fear about training before breakfast, and the controlled trials don’t support it.

In the 12-week resistance-training trial, quadriceps muscle thickness rose 1.21 cm in the fasted group and 1.18 cm in the fed group, with knee-extension 1RM up 28.53 kg and 29.31 kg respectively and no group effect approaching significance.⁸ The 4-week aerobic trial measured fat-free mass alongside fat mass and found no significant between-group difference in any outcome.²

The mechanism people worry about — elevated protein breakdown when glycogen and insulin are low — is real at the level of a single bout. It simply doesn’t accumulate into measurable tissue loss at the session durations and intensities these trials used. If you’re doing 30 to 60 easy minutes before breakfast, muscle loss is not the thing to spend your attention on.

And the cost isn’t purely about fuel availability. Richard Metcalfe’s group at Swansea University had eleven highly trained cyclists (VO₂max 61 ± 5 ml/kg/min) complete two trials in which the energy and macronutrients provided before the evening test were identical — 1,457 kcal, 81.5% carbohydrate — with only meal timing differing. One trial split that intake into breakfast and lunch; the other fasted until noon and took it all at lunch.

Mean power in an evening 20 km time trial was about 3% lower without breakfast — a difference of 9.1 W (95% CI: −15.3, −2.9; P < 0.01) — despite identical pre-exercise carbohydrate intake. Perceived effort ran higher in the early stages even though power output was lower.⁹

Skipping the morning meal cost these riders performance that evening, and no amount of catch-up eating recovered it. If you’re structuring hard sessions, our pre-workout nutrition guide has the practical fueling numbers.

The Metabolic Adaptation Argument, Fairly Stated

There is one genuinely intriguing pro-fasted finding, and it deserves accurate framing rather than dismissal or hype.

Peter Hespel’s group at KU Leuven fed healthy young men a hypercaloric, fat-rich diet — about 30% above maintenance, 50% of calories from fat — for six weeks. One group trained fasted, one trained with carbohydrate before and during sessions, one didn’t train.

Body weight rose in the control (+3.0 kg) and carbohydrate-fed (+1.4 kg) groups but not significantly in the fasted group (+0.7 kg, P = 0.13). Only fasted training improved whole-body glucose tolerance and the Matsuda insulin sensitivity index versus control, and it raised muscle GLUT4 protein content by 28%.¹⁰

That is a real and well-executed finding. Note what it is, though: a study about defending metabolic health against a deliberately unhealthy diet — not a fat-loss study, and not one whose 2010 design has since been replicated into consensus.

The picture also isn’t uniform across training types. When the Limerick group examined three weeks of sprint interval training, pre-exercise whey protein produced “similar or enhanced performance adaptations” compared with fasted training, with mitochondrial enzyme activity increases comparable across groups.¹¹

The International Society of Sports Nutrition’s position stand on nutrient timing endorses several specific timing strategies, while naming total daily protein intake as the primary area of emphasis.¹²

So Should You Do Fasted Cardio?

Here’s the decision, compressed.

Your session	Eat first?	Why
Easy 30–60 min walk, jog, or Zone 2	Optional	No measurable performance cost at short durations7
Long run or ride (>75–90 min)	Yes	Feeding significantly improves prolonged aerobic performance7
Intervals, threshold, or any hard effort	Yes	~3% power loss persists even with matched daily carbs9
Heavy resistance training	Either	12 weeks fasted vs fed showed no significant difference in strength or hypertrophy8
Evening session of any kind	Yes	Evening fasted exercise raised 24-h intake by 547 kcal6
You genuinely can’t stomach food at 6 a.m.	No	Adherence beats optimization; body composition is unchanged2

The honest summary: fasted cardio is a scheduling preference, not a fat-loss strategy. If training before breakfast means you actually train, do it. If it means your Saturday long run falls apart at minute 80, eat something.

How Long Should You Fast Before Cardio?

An overnight fast — roughly 10 to 14 hours, meaning nothing since dinner — is what essentially every trial in this literature used, and it’s the only duration with body-composition endpoints attached.¹²

You don’t have to go that long. In the Munich trial, cutting the pre-exercise fast from 12 hours to 6 attenuated the acute post-exercise intake spike before evening sessions.⁶ And there’s no evidence that fasting longer than overnight adds anything, while the performance cost climbs with session duration regardless.⁷

Practical version: if you train in the morning you’re already fasted, so don’t engineer it further. If you train in the evening, a shorter gap is the better trade.

How to Do It Without Wrecking the Session

If fasted morning work fits your life, a few things make it work better.

Keep it under an hour and under threshold. That’s the zone where the evidence shows no performance penalty.⁷

Do it in the morning, not the evening. This is the single highest-leverage choice in this entire article — a 547 kcal difference in 24-hour intake between evening and morning fasted sessions.⁶

Shortening the fast is a legitimate middle ground. In the Munich trial, cutting the pre-exercise fast from 12 to 6 hours before evening exercise attenuated the acute intake spike, though not 24-hour intake.⁶ You don’t have to choose between a 12-hour fast and a full breakfast.

Don’t fast your hard days. Protect the sessions where intensity is the point.

Watch what happens at lunch. The entire potential benefit lives in whether you compensate. In the Bath trial, plasma glucose utilization during fasted exercise correlated with energy-intake compensation at lunch (r = 0.62, P = 0.03) — some people make it back, some don’t.⁴ You are one of those two people, and only your own data will tell you which.

What to Actually Track

Since the mechanism runs through appetite and adherence rather than substrate use, the metrics worth watching aren’t the ones your watch shows you mid-run.

Track your weekly trend in body mass and how much you ate on fasted-training days versus fed ones. Track whether your hard sessions hold their usual power or pace. Track how you felt at minute 50.

This is where a coach that reads your actual data beats a rule of thumb. SensAI pulls heart rate, sleep, and HRV through Apple HealthKit — including Garmin, Oura, and WHOOP data that routes through it — and connects them to how each session actually went, rather than assuming a protocol works because it worked for someone else.

When you tell the SensAI coach you’re running fasted before work, that constraint persists. Its memory carries context across sessions, so it programs your harder efforts around the days you’ll be fueled instead of stacking intervals onto a morning you’re training on an empty stomach.

That’s the practical version of everything above: the research says timing effects are small, individual, and easily swamped by adherence. A system that watches your response is worth more than a meta-analysis average — and SensAI is built to do the watching. If you’re deciding how to sequence your week more broadly, cardio before or after weights covers the other half of that scheduling question.

Frequently Asked Questions

Does fasted cardio burn more fat? Yes, during the session — about 3.08 g more, per a meta-analysis of 27 studies and 273 participants.¹ That’s roughly 28 calories, and it does not translate into greater fat loss over weeks.²

Will I lose more weight doing cardio on an empty stomach? Not from fat oxidation. Four weeks of volume-equated fasted versus fed aerobic exercise on a matched hypocaloric diet produced no significant between-group differences in fat mass.² Any real advantage comes from eating less overall, which is inconsistent between studies.⁴⁵

Does fasted cardio burn muscle? The 12-week resistance-training trial found no disadvantage — quadriceps thickness increased 1.21 cm fasted versus 1.18 cm fed, with no significant group effect.⁸

Is it better to do cardio before or after breakfast? Before, if your session is short and easy and you prefer it. After, if it’s long, hard, or in the evening — pre-exercise feeding significantly improves prolonged aerobic performance,⁷ and evening fasted training substantially increases later eating.⁶

How long should I fast before cardio? An overnight fast is what the studies use. A 6-hour fast captured much of the substrate effect while attenuating the acute intake rebound in the evening-exercise comparison.⁶

Does fasted cardio improve insulin sensitivity? In one 6-week trial under a hypercaloric fat-rich diet, fasted training improved glucose tolerance and raised muscle GLUT4 by 28% where fed training did not.¹⁰ That’s a metabolic-health finding under dietary stress, not a fat-loss finding.

The Bottom Line

Fasted cardio burns about three extra grams of fat per session¹ — and daily fat balance turns out to be governed by energy balance rather than by the fuel mix of any single hour.³

What survives contact with randomized trials is much simpler. Body composition doesn’t care whether you ate first.²⁸ Long and hard sessions go better when you did.⁷⁹ And whatever benefit exists probably comes from appetite — where when you train matters more than whether you fasted.⁶

So set the alarm if the quiet morning is what gets you out the door. Just don’t set it for the three grams.

---

References

Footnotes

1. Vieira AF, Costa RR, Macedo RC, Coconcelli L, Kruel LF. “Effects of aerobic exercise performed in fasted v. fed state on fat and carbohydrate metabolism in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” British Journal of Nutrition, 2016;116(7):1153-1164. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27609363/ ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

2. Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA, Wilborn CD, Krieger JW, Sonmez GT. “Body composition changes associated with fasted versus non-fasted aerobic exercise.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 2014;11(1):54. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25429252/ ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹

3. Melanson EL, Gozansky WS, Barry DW, MacLean PS, Grunwald GK, Hill JO. “When energy balance is maintained, exercise does not induce negative fat balance in lean sedentary, obese sedentary, or lean endurance-trained individuals.” Journal of Applied Physiology, 2009;107(6):1847-1856. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19833807/ ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

4. Edinburgh RM, Hengist A, Smith HA, Travers RL, Betts JA, Thompson D, Walhin JP, Wallis GA, Hamilton DL, Stevenson EJ, Tipton KD, Gonzalez JT. “Skipping Breakfast Before Exercise Creates a More Negative 24-hour Energy Balance: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Healthy Physically Active Young Men.” The Journal of Nutrition, 2019;149(8):1326-1334. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31321428/ ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

5. Podestá DI, Blannin AK, Wallis GA. “Effects of overnight-fasted versus fed-state exercise on the components of energy balance and interstitial glucose across four days in healthy adults.” Appetite, 2024;203:107716. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39426734/ ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

6. Höchsmann C, Hechenbichler Figueroa S, Saller M, Frodl A, Nusser V, Koehler K. “Effects of exercise timing and metabolic state on post-exercise energy intake and appetite — a randomized crossover trial.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2026;124(3):101439. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42471222/ ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹

7. Aird TP, Davies RW, Carson BP. “Effects of fasted vs fed-state exercise on performance and post-exercise metabolism: A systematic review and meta-analysis.” Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 2018;28(5):1476-1493. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29315892/ ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰

8. Vieira AF, Blanco-Rambo E, Bandeira-Guimarães M, Silva RT, Fergutz A, Paz IA, Munhoz SV, Colombelli R, Vaz MA, Macedo RCO, Cadore EL. “Impact of Overnight Fasted State Versus Fed State on Adaptations to Resistance Training: A Randomized Clinical Trial.” International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 2025;35(4):291-302. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40335157/ ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

9. Metcalfe RS, Thomas M, Lamb C, Chowdhury EA. “Omission of a carbohydrate-rich breakfast impairs evening endurance exercise performance despite complete dietary compensation at lunch.” European Journal of Sport Science, 2021;21(7):1013-1021. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32674691/ ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

10. Van Proeyen K, Szlufcik K, Nielens H, Pelgrim K, Deldicque L, Hesselink M, Van Veldhoven PP, Hespel P. “Training in the fasted state improves glucose tolerance during fat-rich diet.” The Journal of Physiology, 2010;588(21):4289-4302. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20837645/ ↩ ↩² ↩³

11. Aird TP, Farquharson AJ, Bermingham KM, O’Sullivan A, Drew JE, Carson BP. “Divergent serum metabolomic, skeletal muscle signaling, transcriptomic, and performance adaptations to fasted versus whey protein-fed sprint interval training.” American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 2021;321(6):E802-E820. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34747202/ ↩

12. Kerksick CM, Arent S, Schoenfeld BJ, Stout JR, Campbell B, Wilborn CD, Taylor L, Kalman D, Smith-Ryan AE, Kreider RB, Willoughby D, Arciero PJ, VanDusseldorp TA, Ormsbee MJ, Wildman R, Greenwood M, Ziegenfuss TN, Aragon AA, Antonio J. “International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: nutrient timing.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 2017;14:33. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28919842/ ↩